Study Abroad Cross-Cultural Reflection

This study abroad experience has opened my eyes to the ways of the world and has, so far, been the greatest adventure that I have ever embarked upon. Being that this is my first time diving into a culture significantly different from my own, I have to say that the first weeks in China and Japan were wonderful learning experiences for me.                                                  

The first day in China, as I’m sure is the case for most people visiting a new place, was daunting. The thought of being so far from home in a place where I could not speak, nor understand, the language brought on a lot of stress. While the landscape beneath the plane provided some comfort and a sense of adventure, the apprehension was very much present. From the food to the historical sites, China was rich with diversity and tradition, seeming to transcend time; the past seemed to commingle in harmony with the present.                                                              

Something that really caught my attention was the fact that many people from the more rural areas of China have never seen foreigners before. On a trip to the zoo and on a hiking trip, my classmates and I were stopped multiple times for photo ops with people from all over China. It really put it into perspective just how unique countries like the U.S. are for their diversity. Save for a vocal minority, Americans do not bat an eye when we see people who look different from us. We go our entire lives knowing and accepting that people come in all sorts of shapes, sizes, and colors, but we are all human beings. I am certain that there was no ill-intent on the part of those taking pictures with us, but it goes to show just how much we take for granted the opportunity we have to interact with people from all over the world and from different heritages and accepting it as the way things are.                                                                                          

Leaving Beijing was a bitter-sweet moment. After all the stress of school and the uncertainty of living in China, it was nice to finally move on to the next adventure. On the other hand, I knew I would miss my Mandarin classmates and all of the wonderful places I had the pleasure of visiting. Despite the stresses that all of us were feeling at various points, whether culture shock or school, I can honestly say that my friends and I had a wonderful time exploring Beijing and I know that I will miss China.                                                                                     

One of the main goals I had set for myself, besides continuing my language study in both countries, was to gain a better understanding of the United States’ relationships with East Asia. Something that I had not realized was just how dependent the United States and China are on each other. For example, China has many food chains and clothing stores that are all based in the States. Additionally, China imports food and other necessities from the U.S. Within the context of the current trade war, it is and will continue to be concerning as the effects of these tariffs start to take their toll on both countries' economies and consumers. While the U.S. and China have not always had the best relations throughout history (often times becoming volatile and violent), both countries’ economies and positions of power within international relations and politics have been essential to each other’s survival. The course of the next few months, and possibly years, could very well determine the fate of the global economy. While many people, politicians included, have historically been skeptical of China’s political structure, it is important to remember that the downfall of two enormous world economies will have devastating effects of the economic and political structure of the world. By being in the thick of the current events and being able to speak with Chinese students and teachers about the issue, I believe that I have made great strides in fulfilling the goal I set up for myself.
            Overall, this trip has been an incredible experience that I will always remember fondly. The memories I have made so far are the greatest souvenirs that I will bring home, and this adventure is one that will better prepare me for life beyond college.  

Final Post

Letter to Self:

Whoa, it’s been a whole, what, 8 months since you were in GLS 277 preparing to go to China and Japan?! Well, hopefully, you stuck to your goals while you were over there.

For starters, you’re having trouble putting yourself outside of your comfort zone. You keep telling yourself that, one day, you’ll get out of your shell, but that hasn’t really happened yet. Don’t worry though, I’m sure that being in a big group prompted you to make friends and get out and see the world. That’s another goal you have, right? To get out there and just experience the world and the people who live on it. You want to learn and understand the cultures that seem so far away and have a chance to explore and just, well, be. To have a sense of how you fit in the world.

Don’t forget, you’re also doing this to better understand the world system and how countries interact. If you want to be a diplomat, or at least work in an embassy, you need to know first-hand how the world works, especially how the U.S. relates to China and Japan since that’s the direction you took with your studies. Hopefully, you read and watched the news while you were there to get that perspective. Oh, and, hopefully, you did alright with your language studies. It’s important now more than ever to be able to speak another language, especially considering your future line of work. If you didn’t do so hot, don’t sweat it; at least you did your very best and had fun doing it. And that’s another goal; having fun. There are so many amazing people all over the world and being able to experience the world with them is so beautiful.

So, hopefully, you were able to see just how beautiful the world can be, learn about how you fit, understand how the world works, got a better grasp on East Asian language, and were able to have fun with your new friends!

Blog: One thing I'd like to do/see

One of the places that I have always wanted to visit is the Tōdai-ji temple in Nara. Regarding its history, it is a Buddhist temple complex that was once one of the powerful Seven Great Temples. Its Great Buddha Hall houses the world's largest bronze statue of the Buddha Vairocana, known in Japanese as Daibutsu. Under the Ritsuryō system of government in the Nara Period, Buddhism was heavily regulated by the state through the Sōgō. During this time, Tōdai-ji served as the central administrative temple for the provincial temples for the six Buddhist schools in Japan at the time: the Hossō, Kegon, Jōjitsu, Sanron, Ritsu and Kusha. Letters dating from this time also show that all six Buddhist schools had offices at Tōdai-ji, complete with administrators, shrines and their own library.

The original complex also contained two 100-meter pagodas, which were among the tallest structures at the time of their completion. They were located on either side of the complex, one on the western and one on the eastern side. The pagodas themselves were surrounded by a walled courtyard with four gates. However, these gates were destroyed by an earthquake. One of the sōrin finials survived and is standing at the spot where one of the pagodas used to stand.

The Shōsōin was its storehouse, and now contains many artifacts from the Tenpyo period of Japanese history.

Various buildings of the Tōdai-ji have been incorporated within the overall aesthetic intention of the gardens' design. Adjacent villas are today considered part of Tōdai-ji. Some of these structures are now open to the public.

Over the centuries, the buildings and gardens have evolved together as to become an integral part of an organic and living temple community.

The Tōdai-ji Culture Center opened its doors on October 10, 2011 and comprises of a museum to exhibit the many sculptures and other treasures enshrined in the various temple halls, along with a library and research center, storage facility, and auditorium.

The temple also serves as the Japanese headquarters of the Kegon school of Buddhism. Today, the temple is a listed UNESCO World Heritage Site as one of the "Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara", together with seven other sites including temples, shrines and places in the city of Nara. Deer, regarded as messengers of the gods in the Shinto religion, roam freely around the grounds of the temple and the public has the opportunity to hand feed them. Another point of intrigue about the deer is that, over the years, they have learned to bow for food and after they have been fed.

Since Nara is a destination for our course, visiting some of the sites on the grounds of the complex should be accessible. I am very excited to see the site first-hand and have the chance to explore the museums and cultural centers. The historical and cultural significance of Tōdai-ji has always fascinated me and the chance to learn more about it means the world to me. This is an excursion I do not want to miss.

Journal 9

Journal

One thing that I had not really considered when it comes to communication is the use of non-verbal cues. I had not realized just how often, or not, I tend to use my hands when speaking, and the section made me more aware of how much eye contact I use and the physical distance that I put between myself and others when I am speaking with them. Typically, I do not make eye contact with other people in conversation unless they are close friends or family members. I am shy to a fault, so excessive eye-contact, especially with authority figures or people I do not know, makes me uncomfortable. Interestingly, eye-contact is typically seen as aggressive, so I am sure that I will not give off the wrong impression when speaking to people in my host country.

 When it comes to specific hand signals (thumbs up, okay, etc.), I find that I do not use them very often. However, I tend to be expressive, using my hands to convey a lot of what I am saying. I feel that, in my host countries, this could be an issue, as it might definitely draw attention and could potentially come off as rude.

Personal space will definitely not be an issue for me when I visit my host countries. It is typical in the United States to leave a decent amount of space between yourself and the person you are speaking to, and the same is typical of Japan. I usually leave a few feet between myself and the person I am having a conversation with, unless the person is a close friend or family member. Additionally, I am not a fan of physical contact, even with friends, so I know that I won’t be the “typical American” going in for hugs with acquaintances in my host countries.

In preparing to come home, I know now that it will take time. Especially given how short our break will be between fall and winter term due to the length of the program, I hope to take what little time I do have to reflect on my travels and process everything as best I can. It will be especially hard since we will be returning right before Christmas, so I will be surrounded by family and trying to wrap gifts from abroad while also trying to adjust to being back home. I am not sure what sorts of cultural practices I will pick up abroad, or just how much I will have to relearn when I return, but I hope that I will be able to acclimate at my own pace. After completing the readings, I feel comfortable in knowing that I am not going to be the only one to feel overwhelmed by being back in my home country. I know that the transition will not be smooth, but I am hoping to make the best of it by journaling and reflecting on my wonderful experiences abroad and the likely awkward ones back at home.  

Blog

The Meiji Restoration was an event that restored practical imperial rule to the Empire of Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Although there were ruling Emperors well before the Meiji Restoration, the events restored practical abilities and consolidated the political system under the Emperor of Japan.

The goals of the restored government were expressed by the new Emperor in the Charter Oath. The Restoration led to enormous changes in Japan's political and social structure and spanned both the late Edo period and the beginning of the Meiji period.

One of the driving forces of the restoration was a response to Japan’s general legging behind other countries in terms of technology. While industrialization had occurred independently of Western influence (beginning in the countryside), later pushed Japan to trade with foreign countries like the U.S. and adopt some of their technology (most notably the train).

The leaders of the Meiji Restoration (Itō Hirobumi, Matsukata Masayoshi, Kido Takayoshi, Itagaki Taisuke, Yamagata Aritomo, Mori Arinori, Ōkubo Toshimichi, and Yamaguchi Naoyoshi) concerned themselves with restoring imperial rule to strengthen Japan against the threat represented by the colonial powers of the day, as well as combine modern advances with traditional values. This would require the feudal lords to surrender their land and power to the emperor. Many lords, the Tokugawa chief among them, were subsequently persuaded to do so, thus creating, arguably for the first time, a central government in Japan which exercised direct power through the entire "realm".

Some shogunate forces escaped to Hokkaidō, where they attempted to set up a breakaway Republic of Ezo; however, forces loyal to the Emperor ended this attempt in May 1869 with the Battle of Hakodate in Hokkaidō. The defeat of the armies of the former shōgun marked the final end of the Tokugawa shogunate, with the Emperor's power fully restored.

Finally, by 1872, the daimyōs, past and present, were summoned before the Emperor, where it was declared that all domains were now to be returned to the Emperor. The roughly 280 domains were turned into 72 prefectures, each under the control of a state-appointed governor. “If the daimyōs peacefully complied, they were given a prominent voice in the new Meiji government. Later, their debts and payments of samurai stipends were either taxed heavily or turned in to bonds which resulted in a large loss of wealth among former samurai” (Lonely Planet).

Besides drastic changes to the social structure of Japan, in an attempt to create a strong centralized state defining its national identity, the government established a dominant national dialect that replaced local and regional dialects and was based on the patterns of Tokyo's samurai classes. This dialect eventually became the norm in the realms of education, media, government, and business.

The Meiji Restoration, and the resultant modernization of Japan, also influenced Japanese self-identity with respect to its Asian neighbors, as Japan became the first Asian state to modernize based on the Western model, replacing the traditional Confucian hierarchical order that had persisted previously under a dominant China with one based on modernity.

Journal 8: Adjustment and Political Structure/Debate

Journal

This section really opened my eyes about the daily frustrations that I will likely face while studying abroad. However, the acknowledgement of these issues being part and parcel to the experience, and that they will get better with time, put me at ease about functioning properly (or not) while abroad in China and Japan.

Some of my biggest concerns about going abroad are homesickness, loneliness or lack of friends, and having difficulty communicating with students from my host countries. However, I see now that these are lows that are felt by almost every student who studies in another country. I am no stranger to being off on my own for an extended period of time, but the level of difference between my home and host countries intimidated me, and I thought that my homesickness would be worse when overseas. Even if that turns out to be the case, I feel more at ease knowing that I will be surrounded by students who will probably feel more-or-less the same way about the situation. Additionally, thinking about the potential high points of my trip have helped me to cope with the fear of encountering the low points. One of the things I have always wanted to do is visit Nara, Japan. Seeing Nara as a destination in our schedule made me so happy and it is among the many experiences that I am looking forward to during the second half of the course. Additionally, the thought of being able to visit the Great Wall is mind-boggling at the moment. To think that I have the opportunity to see what I had always thought of as some inaccessible destination is a dream come true, to say the very least.

Something I never thought of as a high point until recently is making new friends in my host country and possibly from other countries. Being from a high school that was heavily involved with Rotary and its student exchange program, I have had the privilege of meeting students from France, Ecuador, Slovakia, Japan, and Taiwan. The thought of making more friends and learning about their homes and cultures is really exciting. While I know that adjusting to my host country and some of the customs and mannerisms of my classmates will be difficult at first, I realize that this is the case for just about everyone. Before reviewing the material for this week, I did not really consider that students from my host country would have to adapt to my cultural differences as well. Knowing that it will be a learning experience for everyone involved not only put me at ease about the experience, but it has made me more open to learning and adapting, as well as teaching others who are just as willing to learn.

I am aware that the process of functioning perfectly will not happen overnight, no matter how much background information I go in with. That being said, I hope to adapt as well as I can in order to have the most productive and enjoyable learning experience that I can.

Blog

The central government of the People's Republic of China is divided among several state organs that are responsible for different sectors of the political system. The primary organs of state power are the National People's Congress (NPC), the President, and the State Council. Members of the State Council include the Premier, a variable number of Vice Premiers, five State Councilors, and 29 ministers and heads of State Council commissions. During the 1980s there was an attempt made to separate party and state functions, with the party deciding general policy and the state carrying it out. The attempt was later abandoned in the 1990s with the result that the political leadership within the state are also the leaders of the party. This dual structure thereby creates a single centralized focus of power.

At the same time there has been a move to separate party and state offices at levels other than the central government. This frequently causes conflict between the chief executive and the party secretary, and this conflict is widely seen as intentional to prevent either from becoming too powerful. Some special cases are the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau where the Mainland Chinese national laws do not apply at all and the autonomous regions where the chief executive is typically a member of the local ethnic group while the party general secretary is non-local and usually Han Chinese.

Under the Constitution of China, the NPC is the highest organ of state power in China. It meets annually for about two weeks to review and approve major new policy directions, laws, the budget, and major personnel changes. Most national legislation in the PRC is adopted by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress. Most initiatives are presented to the NPCSC for consideration by the State Council after previous endorsement by the Communist Party's Politburo Standing Committee. “Although the NPC generally approves State Council policy and personnel recommendations, the NPC and its standing committee has increasingly asserted its role as the national legislature and has been able to force revisions in some laws. For example, the State Council and the Party have been unable to secure passage of a fuel tax to finance the construction of expressways” (Lonely Planet).

Today, the major political debate circulating throughout China is whether or not Hong Kong should be allowed to become independent from China and have its own democracy. Since the former colony’s independence from Britain, China has maintained sovereignty there. Recently, the Chinese government promised direct elections for chief executives by 2017. However, China's top legislative committee ruled that voters would only be able to choose from a limited list of candidates that were selected by a nominating committee formed "in accordance with" Hong Kong's largely pro-Beijing election committee, a move which democracy activists argue gives China the ability to remove any candidates it disapproves of.

Additionally, the legal head of the central government’s liaison office, Wang Zhenmin, stated that Hong Kong has become part of “red China,” since reunification because the Communist Party and the country are inseparable, indicating that democracy independent of China in Hong Kong will have to wait.

Journal 7: Communication and Food

Journal: Communication 

Before reading the section on high and low-context communication, I had never given much thought about the ways in which I communicate with other people. Like other aspects of my culture, low-context communication is so ingrained in me that I never noticed it. However, I did notice that some of my communication styles, depending on the situation, are similar to high-context communication styles. For example, I am more likely to be very indirectly when I am invited out but cannot or do not want to go. I very much subscribe to the idea of “saving face,” especially when it comes to friends and family. I also initially use high-context communication when discussing a topic that a friend and myself disagree on. Rather than dodge or ask questions, though, I tend to argue both sides, though I am sure that my friend knows my true thoughts by the time the discussion comes to an end. I have a terrible poker face. I am also very indirect about expressing when I want or need something. I suppose it may be due to my upbringing (not wanting to be a burden or annoy other people by making a request for something they may not think I need), and I usually only hint at something, even though this is not usually effective with some people. Other than that, I am very “American” in that I rely heavily on low-context communication to get me through the day. When being given directions, coordinating plans with a group of people, allocating tasks for a project, or simply having a conversation, I tend to expect for others to be straightforward and will reciprocate. As much as I like to think that I am capable of understanding what someone is saying, or implying, based on their tone, body language, and phrasing, I am more comfortable having conversations with people who use low-context communication styles. I have a fear of misunderstanding and/or being misunderstood, so I like to give as much relevant information as possible and prefer to be given information that will help me understand the other person as well as possible. Seeing as how I will be studying in China and Japan, two cultures that rely on high-context communication, I feel that the experience will help me to become more perceptive to how others are feeling. Additionally, it may help me to more accurately read the situation and respond accordingly. Given that I use both high and low-context communication styles, I hope that I will be able to apply my own communication methods when they would be appropriate. When it comes to nonverbal communication, especially when it comes to eye contact, I generally avoid it (especially with people I don’t know very well or with professors). It is more a habit of nervousness, but I feel that this may save me when I communicate with others in my host countries, considering that direct eye contact is seen as a sign of intimidation. Overall, I hope to better hone my communication styles while abroad, though I am sure that will not be easy.  

Blog: Chinese Mooncakes

A mooncake is a Chinese desert traditionally eaten during the Mid-Autumn Festival  The festival is for lunar appreciation and moon watching, when mooncakes are regarded as a delicacy. Mooncakes are offered between friends or on family gatherings while celebrating the festival. The Mid-Autumn Festival is one of the four most important Chinese festivals.

The festival is intricately linked to legends of Chang E, the Moon Goddess typically associated with immortality. According to the Liji, an ancient Chinese book recording customs and ceremonies, the Chinese Emperor would need to offer sacrifices to the sun in spring and the moon in autumn. The 15th day of the 8th lunar month is the day called "Mid-Autumn". The night on the 15th of the 8th lunar month is also called "Night of the Moon". The tradition is typically associated with

Because of its central role in the Mid-Autumn festival, mooncakes remained popular even in recent years. For many, they form a central part of the Mid-Autumn festival experience such that it is now commonly known as Mooncake Festival.

Typical mooncakes are round pastries eaten in the Southern Chinese regions. They are usually filled with a rich, thick filling made from red bean or lotus seed paste and surrounded by a thin crust. Mooncakes are usually eaten in small wedges accompanied by tea.

There is a folk tale about the overthrow of Mongolian rule in China facilitated by messages smuggled in moon cakes.

Mooncakes were used by the Ming revolutionaries the end of the Yuan dynasty. It was said that revolutionary leaders distributed mooncakes to each other and their revolutionaries that contained a secret message coordinating the Han Chinese revolt on the 15th day of the eighth lunar month.

Many view the mooncake hidden messages to be a precursor to the modern day fortune cookie. By adding the covert element to the myths of the fortune cookie some have found more meaning behind the simple treat. This led to the act of removing and replacing the fortune inside without breaking for an added bit of good luck. On the other hand, as the fortune cookie originated in either Japan or the USA, there may in fact be no link to mooncakes.

Having heard about the tradition of eating mooncakes in my world culture classes, along with the significance and history surrounding them, when I was younger, I was curious about what went into making this dish and if I would be able to pull it off. Using this recipe, I went to work doing my best to improvise when needed, since the recipe is pretty complicated. I am by no means an expert on baking, but, despite this, I think they turned out just fine. While I did not have access to the tools needed to make the intricate designs, in addition to having to make a second batch, I was able to successfully make mooncakes that tasted delicious. I wasn’t sure if I would like the recipe, but, as it turns out, I did. Though mooncakes are not as popular anymore, I am curious to try different flavors while studying in China.  

Journal 6: Folk Tales and Films

Journal: Japanese Folk Tale

After reading a few iterations of The Old Man and the Cherry Blossom Tree and becoming curious as to the origins of the story, I discovered that each version of the story emphasizes various aspects of Japanese culture and I feel that, with every iteration, the function of the narrative shifts ever so slightly. In some versions, the old man shares his gold with the entire village, illustrating that altruism is to be expected in the world and emphasizing the value of community. It is our place to look out for one another and to do what is right for the community.  

In another version of the story, the neighbor is sent away to prison for his crimes, but he returns to his village a better man. In one version, the old men make amends and become friends, coming together in remembrance each year on the anniversary of Shiro’s death. These versions would suggest that the world consists of both good and bad people, but that there is always room for change and to better oneself after making a mistake or committing violence. Additionally, our place is to be a person willing to change, or be stuck in our old, sometimes negative, ways.

In some versions, the old man sits with the body of Shiro all night long showing respect for the dead. Shiro can sometimes talk to the kind old man in some versions and even after death, instructs the old man to make something useful from his tree, indicating a belief in life after death. To this end, the story seeks to tell that our place in the world is determined by a higher, supernatural power. As a result, we must act in accordance with this power and accept the hand we have been dealt. When acting in the world, we must be mindful of the higher power guiding us.

What I found interesting across the various iterations of the story is that the kind old man never retaliates against his neighbor. To this end, the folk tale teaches us to value forgiveness. The renaming of the old man by the prince is significant in that the kind old man not only gains wealth, but also honor and prestige. He is reborn. He is no longer a commoner and is raised in social rank, which affords privilege and wealth. This is of tremendous significance, as in ancient Japan, there was very little upward mobility between the social classes. In this way, the story functions as a way of telling us that good deeds result in rewards. As to our place in the world, we can choose to be someone whom seeks to do good deeds for the sake of doing them – being kind because it is the right thing to do. To that end, we should be humbled by the gains of our altruism and to be responsible with what we have been blessed with. When evaluating what goes on in the world, we must be willing to do what is right when the time comes.

Blog: Sumo Do, Sumo Don't

Suo Masayuki’s Sumo Do, Sumo Don’t is a serious comedy with a well-executed and engaging plot. A university sumo club has only one member, Aoki. His admiration of sumo and its traditions is sadly not matched by his ability in the ring. Through a variety of means a university professor, Dr. Amayama, manages to recruit other members. The main character, Shuhei, a skinny high school student who just wants to graduate and get a job on the strength of his family name, gets an offer from Dr. Amayama into taking part in the university's failing sumo club in order to save it and to fill Shuhei’s credits, as he has repeatedly skipped class. The eventual recruits are a lovable group of outcasts that include a chubby nerd who is Catholic; Shuhei’s younger brother, Haruno (a wannabe professional); a female student, Masako, who loves to cook and looks out for the team; and a cocky British international student, George Smiley. Despite various trials and tribulations involving disastrous losses to other teams and even a grade-school sumo camp group, these ‘misfits’ manage to bond together as a cohesive group. They develop the dedication to training and hard work which is necessary to win for themselves and each other. 

Sumo wrestling has existed in Japan for over 2000 years, and it is regarded as an important symbol of Japanese cultural identity. Sumo was originally performed as part of a religious ceremony in trying to ensure that the harvest was bountiful and was eventually transformed as entertainment for the Imperial Court. One of the defining features of sumo for the Japanese is its adherence to ancient traditions. Wrestlers, dressed only in loincloth (mawashi), enter the ring (dohyoo), and toss salt into the air to purify the ring. Throughout history, women have not been allowed to enter the ring. It is believed that their presence will defile the sanctity of the ring. Foreigners are attracted to the rituals and traditions of sumo, some of whom have been very successful. The success of these foreigners has brought to the surface tensions between Japanese and foreign attitudes to sumo.

Two other themes are developed by director Suo Masayuki. Firstly, cultural differences between East and West are reconcilable and resolvable. British wrestler, George, initially displayed an unfavorable attitude towards the traditions of sumo. This is exemplified by his refusal throughout the film to wear a loincloth—in the tradition of sumo. In a final bout he changes his mind. On leaving Japan, he thanks his colleagues for helping him to understand and appreciate ‘Japanese spirit’. Secondly, Sumo Do, Sumo Don’t fundamentally challenges the role of women in a traditionally male-dominated sport. This film (probably) constitutes the first example of not only a woman entering, but also wrestling in a ‘sacred male domain’. Masako, disguised as a man, wrestles for the club following an injury to a fellow wrestler in the final tournament match. Overall, this is an entertaining film and is highly recommended. It provides an interesting commentary on Japanese youth, relations between different cultures, the changing role of women and the Japanese way of life.

Journal 5: Culture and Japan's News

Journal: American Culture and Story

In mapping my culture’s dimensions, I was not surprised by where the United States lies in terms of relative dominance and control (Bennett). American values also emphasize optimism and a focus on the self (Storti & Hofstede) For the most part, I myself find that I do not necessarily match up with some of these values. For example, I think of myself as very cooperation-oriented, and I am usually very indirect when it comes to discussing hot-button issues (Schmult). However, I align myself to many individualistic ideals and would consider myself to be vey action-oriented. Such ideals have been influenced by my cultural context and my own family.   

Of the many stories circulating in my family, one in particular stands out that helps me to make sense of the world. Not only that, but it helps me to understand the need for taking risks and doing what I think is right.

During the early 1900’s, just before World War I, my great grandfather, John Olah, decided to leave his village of Satu Mare in Romania to immigrate to the United States. He could see that tensions in Europe were on the rise, and he and members of his family did not want to be caught in the crossfire of a potential war. Travel between countries was extremely difficult in the region so, as he traveled, he made the excuse that he was going to visit a family grave in the next town over. Armed with his belongings and a bouquet of flowers, my great grandfather boarded train after train to reach Greece. He boarded a ship and reached Ellis Island where he was granted United States citizenship. He eventually moved to the Aurora area where he met my great grandmother, Valeria, another Romanian immigrant whom had left Europe with her family.

The two of them made the most out of the American dream. They quickly learned English and made sure that their children were fluent; they rarely spoke Romanian with them, as they believed this would help their kids to be able to communicate and excel. They were very dedicated to their new country, a trait that my grandfather held to for his entire life. To show his dedication to the United States, he (along with some of his cousins), enlisted in the army. My grandfather went on to be a corporal in the United States Army Air Corps where he operated radar technology, which was highly classified information at the time. My great grandfather served as an air raid marshal for the city of Aurora and would patrol the streets during drills.

It is this family history that helps me to understand the need to take risks. Had my great grandfather remained in Romania during the World Wars, there is a good chance that he, along with his family, would have died. His courage to leave his home and the life he knew to travel to a place with an entirely different culture and language inspires me to this day. His attitude is also very much a testament to American cultural values, specifically that individuals have the ability to control what might affect them and that planning for the future is important (Kohls).         

Blog: Japan and News

This week, the Japanese media has reported on a number of topics on both and national and international level. Among these topics, North Korea dominates much of the recent media coverage.

One of the major topics discussed in Japan is the treaty signed between North and South Korea. Media outlets in Japan recognize that, in the wake of this shift, “North Korea needs guarantees from America and South Korea if denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula is a genuine goal”. There is an understanding there that the “cooperation of South Korea is instrumental in paving the way for genuine political and economic ties between both Korea’s”. There is also a call to the United States to recognize the inevitable connection between the countries, but to also be wary.

Other outlets have been reporting on an upcoming summit in Tokyo at which South Korea, China and Japan will discuss the political and diplomatic events involving North Korea. The May 9 summit will bring together the South's President Moon Jae-in, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe and Chinese Premier Li Keqian. Because all three of the neighbors are politically tied to North Korea and to the United States, there is a fear that, especially South Korea and Japan, could be potential targets of aggression from either North Korea, or from China. Specifically, South Korea and Japan are wary and concerned about North Korea’s nuclear weapons and missile technology. Additionally, both North and South Korea have shaky relations with Japan, especially after “Japan's imperialist 1910-45 occupation of the peninsula and the issue of "comfort women" in the South”.

Another issue, one that has not been covered in detail in the United States, is a lawsuit being filed by the Warmbier family against North Korea on behalf of their son, Otto. While the lawsuit may prove largely symbolic, it has been filed at a time in which US-North Korean relations are at their most delicate, especially with upcoming plans for the two leaders to meet face-to-face. The lawsuit, at its core, “contends that North Korea is liable for Warmbier’s wrongful death — describing it as ‘extrajudicial killing’ — and calls for a judgment for both ‘economic and non-economic compensatory damages’ to his parents”.

Shifting to the Middle East, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe and Benjamin Netanyahu recently met in Jerusalem to discuss ways in which the countries could cooperate regarding economy and cybersecurity. Abe also discussed the Middle East peace and Japan’s commitment to helping resolve the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

According to Japanese officials, Abe “supports a two-state solution to resolve the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, with the final status of Jerusalem to be settled through negotiations between the concerned parties”. Japan is also seeking to boost cybersecurity cooperation with Israel in response to the coming 2020 Tokyo Olympics and Paralympics and the need for increased security and updated technology.

With Japan’s steady rise to international power since the 1950’s it is important that the country take the necessary steps towards forming and maintaining key relationships in major regions of the world.

Journal 4: What is Culture? & Historical Figure

Journal: What is culture?

Culture is a tree within and around which we may take refuge. Its leaves are the many facets of culture, such as arts, values, and customs. Each of these is connected by branches to the trunk; the core. The core, in this case, is context. Whether historical, geographical, or societal, culture exists as an abstract entity. Much like a tree grows and flowers, culture also grows, constantly shifting and adapting as time passes and as new ideas are introduced. Its roots then, represent the ways in which a culture has come to be the way it is. The web of roots is the web of influences that has shaped culture - peace and conflict; openness and isolation; prosperity and hardship. It is from these areas of change within history that a culture forms its core, and, from there, its branches and leaves are allowed to continue to change, yet they remain linked to its history and context. Much in the way that one cannot hope to see every individual aspect of culture, one cannot hope to see every individual leaf of a tree. Many close to the trunk are hidden by the outer leaves on the furthest-reaching branches, just as many internal aspects of culture are hidden behind the more obvious aspects. For example, art, fashion, and methods of worship within a culture are much more visible than rules of politeness, concepts of beauty, and ideas about equality within that same culture.         

Additionally, culture is like a tree in that it provides us with a sense of safety; something to which we can ground ourselves and feel comfortable. When under a tree on a warm summer day, the shade of a tree grants us a comfortable vantage point from which to view the world around us. The comfort we feel here is much like the comfort granted to us by our culture. When immersed in our own culture, we feel comfortable around and able to communicate with those around us. We know the topics appropriate to discuss and whom those topics can be discussed with. We know when it is appropriate to speak and how polite or casual we should speak. When we find ourselves thrown into a new culture – thrown under a different tree – we do not know how to properly communicate with the people around us. Our knowledge of what is appropriate does not apply and we feel insecure and long to be within the context of our own culture; to be back under the safe branches of our familiar tree.     

In a sense, being under different trees can help us to understand and appreciate them as well as our own. Being under a new tree, though uneasy, we can learn the sound of its leaves, the feel of its trunk, and the shade of its branches. Immersed in a new culture, we can better grasp and appreciate the different language, customs, and values. After being in the shade of an ancient cherry blossom tree, we can better appreciate the shade of our old, familiar oak.

Historical Figure: Oda Nobunaga

Oda Nobunaga was a powerful daimyō (feudal lord) of Japan in the late 16th century whom made great efforts to unify Japan during the late Sengoku period. He is regarded as one of three unifiers of Japan, following Toyotomi Hideyoshi and before Tokugawa Ieyasu, and consolidated power by reforming the economic system and increasing military strength (Oda Nobunaga). His reign was marked by innovative military tactics and promoting free trade (Lonely Planet: Japan). One of the keys to his success was his early adoption of firearms in a period in which such technology was typically avoided by more traditional samurai and soldiers (Military Revolution in Early Modern Japan).                                                     

Additionally, Nobunaga was very interested in European culture, which was still very new to Japan. He was very open to forming relations with Western powers in terms of trade and strategy. He was known to collect pieces of Western art and weaponry. He also became a patron of the Jesuit missionaries in Japan and supported the establishment of the first Christian church in Kyoto in 1576, although he never converted to Christianity (Lonely Planet: Japan).

In the period of unification, Nobunaga had managed to gain control over most of Honshu before his death in 1582. A historic Japanese saying is that "Nobunaga pounds the national rice cake, Hideyoshi kneads it, and in the end Ieyasu sits down and eats it;" a testament to his role within the eventual unification of Japan (The Three Unifiers of Sengoku Era Japan).                                                                                          

             Oda Nobunaga was born on June 23, 1534, in the Owari domain. He was the second son of Oda Nobuhide, a deputy shugo (military governor) with land holdings in Owari Province (Oda Nobunaga).

With regards to Nobunaga’s military conquests, he displayed a lack of mercy to his enemies. Among his enemies, excluding the daimyo, were Buddhist monks. In the battle of Mount Hiei, “over ten thousand Buddhist monks from the Tendai sect begged Nobunaga to accept gold from the institution rather than taking their lives. Nobunaga refused the overture and slaughtered the monks” (The Three Unifiers of Sengoku Era Japan).                                                                                                                            One of Nobunaga’s “primary enemies was the Imagawa clan of the Suruga Province and led by Imagawa Yoshimoto”. He was able to defeat the Imagawa clan, despite having a smaller fighting force. His victory aided in his campaign to unify the provinces, but it also signaled a weakening of his opposition (Oda Nobunaga).                                                                                                                             At the time of his death, “he had secured about half the provinces of Japan under one shogunate”. His death is still a mystery, though there are a few theories, It is said that “Mitsuhide organized a coup to usurp power from Nobunaga. A force of men was sent to attack Nobunaga when they knew he would not be well protected”, as he was engaged in a religious ceremony at the temple. It is also suggested that Nobunaga took his own life in ritual seppuku before capture, while other sources say that he died in battle (Oda Nobunaga).                                                                                                                                              Today, Oda Nobunaga is remembered as an important historical figure and his legacy is that of tenacity, strategic achievement, and unification of Japan.

Journal/Blog 2: Music

Journal (Reflective):

When thinking about stereotypes and cultural practices, I could not help but think about a few stereotypes that I have personally dealt with. In high school, my family hosted a student from Slovakia through the Rotary Exchange program. The experience overall was eye-opening and a ton of fun. It was also a great opportunity to hear about some American stereotypes from Europe. One of the many stereotypes that he shared with us was that all Americans are rich. Specifically, that most Americans had pools in their yards. I remember my mom laughing at this, saying that a pool is both way too expensive to maintain, and that you’d hardly be able to use it if you live in Illinois. Additionally, he and a Ecuadorian student he was in the program with thought that Americans did not have to tip taxi drivers. They said that, because they had never seen Americans tip cab drivers in movies, they did not think that they needed to tip either. This really got me thinking about how much we tend to glean from another culture based on media either from or about that country.                                                                   

Some years before we hosted an exchange student, I had befriended an exchange student from France and decided to invite her to a New Years party. My parents were curious about what the French stereotypes of Americans are, and she said that she always thought that Americans were always hunting and had deer antlers and stuffed heads of animals on their walls. My family does not hunt, but my mother’s friend’s husband does. Not ten minutes later, the couple walked in, husband wearing a hat with antlers embroidered on it, as well as a camouflage jacket. The French stereotype seems to have been proven correct.

In looking at these examples, it seems that cultural stereotypes about Americans are most the most prevalent, at least in my own experience. For me, I am fortunate to be enrolled at an institution that teaches we a wealth of information about the world, especially concerning China and Japan. My textbooks, secondary materials provided by professors, and films that my professors have had me watch as part of an assignment have given me a fair amount of insight into the cultures of the countries that I will be traveling to. While I cannot say that watching a few movies and reading a couple of books have educated me about every aspect of China and Japan, but I feel that I am in a position to be able to reflect and think in terms of generalizations rather than stereotypes.   

I have also faced stereotypes about the countries I will be studying in from members of my family as well. My grandmother, for example, asked me what the differences between China and Japan are. Granted, she definitely is not trying to be malicious, but she grew up in a time when people were not necessarily concerned about the Asian continent in general, unless we were at war in the region (Vietnam, Korea, etc.). She honestly thought that they spoke the same language and wondered why I would go to both.

China/Japan: Music

AKB48 is an all-female idol group that is about 130 members strong. The group's style is characterized by synchronized dancing and much of their music is pop tunes with sometimes-suggestive lyrics. Their music is in line with that of other Japanese pop groups that I am familiar with.

J-pop, a musical genre that is best characterized by its pop, rock, and synth elements, is one of the most well-known music genres that Americans tend to associate with Japan. Its blend of influences, along with the following that J-pop groups have both in Japan and around the world, is both similar to pop groups in the States and is uniquely Japanese.

Specifically, many of their songs are fast-paced with up-beat choruses. Overall, their songs are really fun to listen to. I typically do not listen to pop very often, more of a metal/rock person, but I think AKB48 has given me a new appreciation for J-pop and pop in general.  Their song “Sugar Rush” specifically piqued my interest because it was featured in the recent Disney Pixar film, Wreak it Ralph. I am always curious about foreign media being incorporated into American media. While I would not say that this particular song is a great representation for Japanese music as a whole, I did find it interesting and enjoyable nonetheless. The fact that most of the song is in Japanese with some English used really caught my attention. While this is not atypical of most Japanese music that I am familiar with, it is still in line with the typical style of AKB48; upbeat with a tone of inspiration. That, and the fact that Disney wanted to incorporate a bit of Japanese popular culture into one of its films is great for introducing the group and J-pop to American audiences.

 The song is about the ups and downs of life and combines pop and rock elements and I have not been able to stop playing it. Overall, I would definitely recommend this song, as well as AKB48’s other works, to those curious about Japanese music, specifically J-pop.

Li Yuchun, also known as Chris Lee, is a Chinese singer whom debuted her singing career by winning the champion at the Chinese singing contest Super Girl in 2005.

Her particular musical genre, Mandopop, describes songs performed in the Mandarin-language and is typically defined as a sub-genre of Canton-pop, or C-pop.  

Li Yuchan’s song. “Happy Wake Up”, is an upbeat tune about being ready to take the world head-on. The lyrics describe how happiness can be found everyday and that we should seek to make our lives the best that they can possibly be, as well as to be yourself. While I am unsure if this song is reflective of the traditionally collectivist culture of China, I believe that this particular song is indicative of a cultural shift within the younger generation of Chinese citizens. This song in particular combines pop and rock elements and is right up my alley.

Overall, I would recommend more of this artist’s work, as it’s both fun and refreshing, but also signals a potential culture change that will be interesting to see play out.    

Jounal/Blog 2: Economy

Journal (Narrative):

For the identity diagram, I found myself filling out circles with words that pertain to the activities that I like to do. I also found that much of what I filled out has little, if anything, to do with me physically, as I see myself as an artist or voice over actor over being a woman. While it is important, to an extent, it does not impact my life in any significant capacity.  In general, I found that the traits I listed have little, if anything, to do with my culture. While being an American is important to me, I do not see it as a defining trait. In terms of how these traits may affect my study abroad experience, I do not think that most of them will impact my experience. If anything, I think that my overall personality and shyness will have the greatest impact on where I go, how I interact with people, and the experiences that I would be willing to seek out.

The iceberg exercise was very interesting in that some of the most important facets of a culture are typically unseen. For example, views on equality, world view, and rules of politeness are not as obvious as clothing, personal space, and works of art. Especially for anyone visiting a country with a very distinct and different culture, it can be difficult to see such important components of culture that impact many social situations. Much of the learning experience abroad will naturally be trial and error, but it certainly helps to be accompanied by other students whom I can learn with and from as we navigate our host countries. 

What I am most looking forward to about studying abroad will be having the opportunity to be immersed in different cultures. Especially since most of my exposure to the countries I’m traveling to has only been through their respective entertainment media, I am curious to see just how much more I can learn from experiencing it for myself. In that regard though, I am also concerned about is finding myself in a situation that I may not be able to navigate with limited knowledge of the host language. While I have comfort in knowing that I will be with other classmates whom will be in the same situation, and will likely be with me, I cannot help but feel anxious about getting lost, miscommunicating, or in a dangerous situation. I think that the thing I will most when abroad is my family. Even today, I am a commuter student, thus still living at home with my family. They have been a constant presence in my life, and, while I’m perfectly capable of being gone for extended periods of time on the other side of the country, I am left to wonder just how I might be impacted knowing my parents are not a twelve-hour drive away. In that regard, however, I am excited by the uncertainty of fending for myself in a part of the world that I hope to work within in the future.  

Blog: China/Japan Economy

China has a very complex economic system, defined as a socialist market system. Essentially, the system is a union between both socialist and capitalist practices. For the most part, the government plays a large role in the economy, though its influence has steadily decreased. One of the unique characteristics of the Chinese economic system is the use of “five-year plans that outline specific economic goals and budget for the given amount of time” (Harper 394). Interestingly, “investment represented an average of approximately 36% of GDP during the first decade of economic reform in China, [which is] relatively high by developing country standards” (Xu). Over the course of the last few years, “the leadership appears to be stepping back from liberalization, increasing the likelihood of less openness to imports and investment, new bureaucratic hurdles, potentially weaker rule of law, and strengthened resistance from vested interests in the state sector that already impede more dynamic economic development” (“China”). This could be detrimental to the domestic economy and the world economy in general since China is currently one of the most powerful economies in the world. Even now, the hints of a trade war between the United States and China could prove detrimental to both parties. Because the United States relies so heavily on Chinese exports, and, in turn, China relies heavily on American purchases and services, any upset in free trade to the two would but both in a vulnerable situation. However, tensions have eased, though the situation is certainly an interesting one from an economic and foreign relations perspective.  

Japan, once a booming economic power in the post-war era, but hit a major decline in the 80’s and 90’s. The market-based economy of Japan has seen some progress over the last ten years. In 2011, “its stunted growth-rate [had] been the least impressive of any major industrial nation, averaging 1% per year” (Warner 1). However, the country has its fair share of hardships to overcome. According to statistics from the Reconstruction Bureau in 2016, “more than 100,000 people were still living in temporary housing” in the wake of the 2011 earthquake and subsequent nuclear meltdown in Fukushima (Milner 816). Currently, in terms of market openness, “the combined value of exports and imports equals 36 percent of GDP” (“Japan”). Fortunately, Japan has seen improvement in recent years. Since 2008, “Japan [had] just over 5% jobless (5.3%)” and that percentage has since “dropped down to 3.1%” (Warner 1, “Japan”). This improvement in the unemployment rate, government, and “dramatic deficit reduction improved the score for fiscal health” (“Japan”). However, with the 2020 Summer Olympics being held in Tokyo, the costs of planning and executing the ceremonies, lodging, and building the stadium in which the games will be held will be an enormous economic undertaking. Hopefully, with a “revitalization agenda aimed at reinflating the economy” proposed by Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, the nation will be able to get back on its feet by the time the world comes together to celebrate unity and friendly competition (“Japan”).  

Works Cited

“China.” China Economy: Population, GDP, Facts, Trade, Business, Inflation, Corruption.

Web. www.heritage.org/index/country/china.

Harper, Damian et al. China. Lonely Planet. 2017. Print.

“Japan.” Japan Economy: Population, Facts, GDP, Business, Trade, Unemployment. Web.                www.heritage.org/index/country/japan.

Milner, Rebecca et al. Japan. Lonely Planet. 2017. Print.

Warner, Malcolm. "Whither Japan? Economy, Management and Society." Asia Pacific Business Review, vol. 17, no. 1, Jan. 2011. https://login.libproxy.noctrl.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=57483172&site=eds-live

Xu, Guangdong. "The Institutional Foundations of China’s Unbalanced Economy." Europe-Asia Studies, vol. 67, no. 9, Nov. 2015. https://login.libproxy.noctrl.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ulh&AN=111116213&site=eds-live

Journal/Blog 1: Reflection and History

Journal (Expressive):     

After completing the learning style survey, I learned a number of things about myself that I had not realized before. For instance, I had a very high visual learning score. For the most part, I had not really realized just how dependent I am on visual guides, directions and handouts, and videos in terms of learning. Especially, when reflecting on how I take notes and the types of lectures I tend to get the most information from, I realized just how important visual learning has been throughout my life. My score also indicated a bias towards a reflective response time. This does not come as a surprise, as I have always been prone to hesitate before jumping into a situation. I cannot help but wonder how these factors will come into play when I begin studying abroad.       

I also received a high score in the introvert category. This definitely did not surprise me. I prefer to learn on my own and I tend to get wrapped up in my thoughts and I have a hard time connecting to others, especially over the course of the last few years. I can curious to see if going abroad will help me to open up and be more extroverted, or if the experience will prompt me to more readily shy away from social interactions.

For my cultural learning strategies, I noticed that, for the pre-departure section (specifically on strategies to use in a culturally different context), I noticed that I am more inclined to want to understand why and how people across cultures hold certain views. Rather than being upset by a generalization someone has of my culture, I tend to want to understand and be aware of their own context when thinking about why they may have that opinion. In general, I have always been taught that people, no matter where they are from and how close they are to you, will not always agree with you on everything. The concept works in reverse. In short, I strive to understand people on an individual basis and take their worldview into account before judging or arguing with them.

In terms of the language strategy inventory, I realized that, when learning a language in general, I tend to focus on broader rules and aspects first and narrow my focus as the concepts become more and more specific. I also am more inclined to try to get the gist of what is said or written, rather than get caught up on minor details. I believe that this innate strategy that I use will be helpful when navigating a country that uses a language that I am familiar with, but not fluent in.

Of the stress factors discussed in the text, I feel that my main concerns, or sources of stress, will be language and visibility. For the most part, I am better at reading and writing that I am at speaking another language, so being forced to speak to people within my host country, while rewarding in the long run, will definitely bring the most stress. Visibility is another concern of mine. Since I like to keep to myself, for the most part, I am worried about drawing attention to myself while abroad.

Blog: China/Japan History

                Chinese civilization can be traced back, both through traditional history and archaeologically, to the Shang dynasty some four thousand years ago. Its ancient history was marked by “prolonged epochs of peace occasionally convulsed by sudden breakup” as well as “conflict either internally or with outsiders” (Harper 936). From 221 B.C. all the way until 1921 A.D., the Imperial Chinese period saw the rise and fall of emperors, as well as “times of peace, then reformed after rebellions and conquests” when power shifted between leaders (“The History of China”). Its capital of Beijing has been a “political center since 1267” and has been the “permanent capital city since the third Ming emperor restored the city as the imperial seat” (“Beijing). From the beginning, China has been a cultural and historical powerhouse, but the nineteenth century was marked by major struggles. From the Boxer Rebellion to the Opium Wars, China was in constant struggle with Western powers, most notably Great Britain. Unfortunately, China’s “relative isolation from the outside world made possible over the centuries the flowering and refinement of the Chinese culture, but it also left China ill prepared to cope with that world when […] it was confronted by technologically superior foreign nations” (China). The twentieth century marked a turning point for China in terms of its place on the world stage. After Chairman Mao Zedong gained power in 1949, China began the transition from a Capitalist country to a Communist one. This reform, which China was not equipped to undertake, placed a heavy burden on the working class and extreme famine and economic struggles weakened the nation. An “enduring legacy, experts say, is the obsession of today’s rulers with stability and political control” (“The Cultural Revolution”). Now, China is one of the most powerful nations in the world and has retained its rich and thriving culture for millennia.

Much like China, Japan boasts a long and rich history. The earliest civilization in Japan is referred to as the Jōmon period, a reference to the “cord markings present in pottery from the era” (“Ancient Japan to 1185”). Much of Japan’s early history was heavily influenced by both China and Korea, and many of these influences can be seen today. For example, “Buddhism flourished in Japan by 710,” and the capital city of Nara “was built using the Chinese grid system” (Milner 820). One of the highest points of cultural history was during the Heian period, a “relatively long period of peace and political strength lasting nearly 400 years, until 1185” (“Heian Period (794–1185)”). During this period, literary works, such as The Tale of Genji were written and continue to be influential in the present. Perhaps the most well-known period in Japanese history is the warring states period; a one-hundred-year period of civil war between regional rulers and a time we associate with the samurai. After unification under Tokugawa Ieyasu, the current capital, Tokyo, “originally called Edo, was established in 1603. As the center of politics and culture in Japan, Edo grew into a huge city with a population of over a million by the mid-eighteenth century” and continues to be a growing economic center (“Tokyo’s History, Geography, and Population”). In time, the beginning of the twentieth century would see a newly-industrialized Japan enter the world stage as a powerful Eastern nation. The conflict between the United States and Japan during World War II is one of the most well-known struggles in history, from the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, to the U.S. dropping atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and “approximately 120,000 civilians died as a result of the two blasts” (World War II in the Pacific”). Despite this and American military occupation of Japan through the 1950’s, the United States and Japan are close allies today.

Sources (in order of use):

Lonely Planet: China
https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/a-brief-history-of-chinese-civilization.html

https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/culture/china-history.htm

https://www.britannica.com/place/China

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/may/11/the-cultural-revolution-50-years-on-all-you-need-to-know-about-chinas-political-convulsion

https://www.britannica.com/place/Beijing

https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan/History

Lonely Planet: Japan

https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/heia/hd_heia.htm

http://www.metro.tokyo.jp/ENGLISH/ABOUT/HISTORY/history01.htm

https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005155